Revisión rápida del uso de cubrebocas quirúrgicos en ámbito comunitario e infecciones respiratorias agudas / Rapid review of the community-wide use of surgical masks and acute respiratory infections

Resumen: Objetivo: Evaluar la efectividad del uso de cubrebocas quirúrgico en ámbitos comunitarios para reducir la probabilidad de contagio por SARS-CoV-2 u otra infección respiratoria aguda viral, en comparación con no usar cubrebocas. Material y métodos: Se utilizó la metodología de revisiones rápidas de Cochrane. La estrategia de búsqueda abarcó una base de datos académica y pre-prints hasta el 1 de abril de 2020. Los títulos y resúmenes fueron revisados por un investigador. La revisión de textos completos fue dividida entre tres investigadores. Los resultados fueron sintetizados de forma narrativa. Resultados: Se identificaron 713 manuscritos, de los cuales 21 cumplieron los criterios de inclusión. De seis revisiones sistemáticas, cuatro no encontraron reducciones en la probabilidad de contagio y seis estudios experimentales en hogares no encontraron diferencias en la probabilidad de contagio asociado con el uso de cubrebocas. Únicamente un estudio de modelaje estimó una reducción de 20% en la incidencia de enfermedad respiratoria, asumiendo que 10 a 50% de la población hace uso correcto de cubrebocas quirúrgicos. Conclusiones: La evidencia científica no es concluyente para recomendar o desalentar el uso de cubrebocas a nivel poblacional. Considerando los potenciales efectos negativos, las recomendaciones gubernamentales deberían esperar a los resultados de los experimentos naturales en países que han recomendado la utilización poblacional de cubrebocas.

Abstract: Objective: To assess the effectiveness of using surgical masks in community settings to reduce the probability of infection by SARS-CoV-2 or other acute viral respiratory infection, compared to not using surgical masks. Materials and methods: We followed the Cochrane rapid review methodology. The search strategy encompasses one academic database and pre-prints until April 1, 2020. Titles and abstracts were reviewed by one investigator. The full text review was divided among three researchers. The results were synthesized in a narrative way. Result: 713 manuscripts were identified, of which 21 met the inclusion criteria. Of six systematic reviews, four found no reduction in the probability of transmission. Experimental home studies found no differences in the probability of contagion associated with the use of mouth masks. Only one modeling study estimated a 20% reduction in the incidence of acute respiratory disease, assuming that 10 to 50% of the population use the surgical masks correctly. Conclusions: The scientific evidence is inconclusive to recommend or discourage the use of surgical masks at the population level. Considering the potential negative effects, official recommendations should await for the results of natural experiments currently occurring in countries that have recommended the use of face masks at the population level.

Impact of the pneumococcal 10-valent vaccine on reducing hospitalization for community-acquired pneumonia in children / Impacto da vacina antipneumocócica 10-valente na redução de hospitalização por pneumonia adquirida na comunidade em crianças

Abstract Objective: To describe and analyze the occurrence of hospitalizations for community-acquired pneumonia in children before and after the pneumococcal 10-valent conjugate vaccine implementation into the National Immunization Program. Methods: This is an ecological study that includes records of children younger than one year old, vaccinated and not vaccinated with the pneumococcal 10-valent conjugate vaccine in the periods pre- and post-inclusion of the vaccine in the National Immunization Program in the area covered by the Regional Health Superintendence of Alfenas, state of Minas Gerais, Brazil. Vaccination was considered as the exposure factor and hospitalization for community-acquired pneumonia as the endpoint, using secondary annual data by municipality. The prevalence ratio and its 95% confidence interval (95%CI) were used to verify the association between variables. The Z test was used to calculate the difference between proportions. Results: Considering the 26 municipalities of the Regional Health Superintendence of Alfenas, there was a significant reduction in hospitalizations for community-acquired pneumonia in children younger than one year of age, with prevalence ratio (PR)=0.81 (95%CI: 0.74-0.89; p<0.05), indicating a 19% lower prevalence of hospitalization for community-acquired pneumonia in the post-vaccination period. Conclusions: The results suggest the effectiveness of the pneumococcal 10-valent conjugate vaccine in preventing severe cases of community-acquired pneumonia in children younger than one year of age.

Resumo Objetivo: Descrever e analisar a ocorrência de internações por pneumonia adquirida na comunidade em crianças antes e após a implantação, no Programa Nacional de Imunização, da vacina pneumocócica 10-valente (conjugada). Métodos: Trata-se de um estudo ecológico que incluiu registros de crianças menores de um ano, vacinadas e não vacinadas com a vacina antipneumocócica 10-valente conjugada, no período pré e pós-inclusão da vacina no Programa Nacional de Imunização na área de abrangência da Superintendência Regional de Saúde de Alfenas, MG, Brasil. A vacinação foi considerada como fator de exposição e a hospitalização por pneumonia adquirida na comunidade como desfecho, com o uso de dados anuais secundários por município. Para verificar a associação entre as variáveis foi empregada a razão de prevalência e seu intervalo de confiança 95% (IC95%). Para o cálculo de diferença entre proporções empregou-se o teste Z. Resultados: Considerando os 26 municípios da Superintendência Regional de Saúde de Alfenas, houve redução significativa do número de hospitalização por pneumonia adquirida na comunidade em crianças abaixo de um ano, com razão de prevalência (RP)=0,81 (IC95% 0,74-0,89; p<0,05), o que indica uma prevalência de internação por pneumonia adquirida na comunidade 19% menor no período pós-vacinal. Conclusões: Os resultados sugerem a efetividade da vacina pneumocócica 10-valente (conjugada) na prevenção de casos graves da pneumonia adquirida na comunidade em crianças menores de um ano.

Prevalencia de gérmenes multirresistentes en infecciones del tracto urinario de la comunidad y asociadas a los cuidados de la salud / Prevalence of multidrug resistant pathogens from community and health care associated urinary tract infections

Introducción: las infecciones asociadas a los cuidados de la salud (ACS) han sido identificadas como un factor de riesgo de pa-tógenos resistentes, sin embargo existen escasos datos de ésta cate-goría epidemiológica en infecciones del tracto urinario (ITU). Métodos: estudio prospectivo y observacional de pacientes ≥ 18 años procedentes de la comunidad con ITU atendidos en un Hospital Ge-neral de Agudos (Diciembre 2011-Noviembre 2012). Fueron conside-rados como ITU-ACS aquellos pacientes con hospitalización en los 90 días previos, residencia en geriátricos/centros de rehabilitación, hemodiálisis crónica, infusión de drogas endovenosas/curación de heridas en su domicilio, o uso crónico de catéter urinario. Aquellos pacientes que no presentaban ninguno de estos criterios fueron con-siderados como ITU de la comunidad (CO).Resultados: se incluyeron un total de 87 pacientes, de los cuales 42 (48 %) y 45 (52 %) se consideraron como ITU-CO e ITU-ACS, respectivamente. Los patógenos más frecuentes fueron: E. coli (74 % vs 47 %), K pneumo-niae (12 % vs 20 %), y E. faecalis (5 % vs 7 %) para ITU-CO e ITU-ACS res-pectivamente. Se observó una frecuencia de patógenos multirresisten-tes de 10 % y 49 % (p < 0,01) para la ITU-CO vs. ITU-ACS respectivamente.Conclusiones: nuestro estudio sugiere que las ITU-ACS representarían una categoría de ITU epi-demiológica y microbiológicamente distinta que ITU-CO. Se deberían identificar correctamente a estos pacientes con el fin de proporcionar un tra-tamiento empírico adecuado

ntroduction: Health care­associated infections (HCA) are a risk factor for multidrug resistant pathogens. However, limited data of this epidemiological category for urinary tract infections (UTI) is available. Methods: This was a prospective and observational study of adult patients coming from community who were attended as outpatients or hospitalized for urinary tract infections at a general Hospital (December 2011-November 2012). Patients who had residency at nursing homes, chronic haemodialysis, intravenous drug infusions or wound care at home, prior hospitalization >= 2 days in the preceding 90 days and chronic indwelling urinary catheters were considered to have HCA-UTI. Results: A total of 87 patients were included, of whom 42 (48%) and 45 (52%) were considered to have community acquired UTI (CA-UTI) and HCA-UTI respectively. The most frequent pathogens were: E. coli (74% vs. 47%), K pneumoniae (12% vs. 20%), and E. faecalis (5% vs. 7%) for CA-UTI and HCA-UTI respectively. Prevalence of MDR: 10% and 49% (p<0.01) for CA-UTI and HCA-UTI respectively. Conclusions: Our study suggests that HCA-UTI should represent a category of UTI epidemiologically and microbiologically distinct from CA-UTI. Physicians should correctly identify these patients in order to provide optimal clinical management

O programa de controle da tuberculose em Pelotas/RS, Brasil: investigação de contatos intradomiciliares / The tuberculosis control program in Pelotas/RS, Brazil: home contact investigations / El programa de control de la tuberculosis de Pelotas/RS, Brasil: investigación de contactos intradomiciliarios

Objetivou-se avaliar as ações de investigação dos contatos intradomiciliares dos casos índices de tuberculose (TB) no Programa de Controle da Tuberculose (PCT), de Pelotas/RS - Brasil. Trata-se de um estudo descritivo de corte transversal, com dados do prontuário dos casos índices. A amostra foi constituída por 163 contatos de 68 indivíduos com TB pulmonar em tratamento no PCT, entre junho e agosto de 2009. Os contatos eram, predominantemente, do sexo feminino, com idade acima dos 10 anos e filhos dos casos índices. Os exames solicitados foram a radiografia de tórax e a baciloscopia. Verificou-se a presença da doença ativa em 1,8% dos contatos. Os resultados evidenciam que a atenção à TB, em Pelotas/RS - Brasil, centralizada em um único serviço especializado, dificulta a investigação dos contatos intradomiciliares, necessitando envolver a atenção primária, para aproximar os profissionais da família e facilitar o diagnóstico precoce e a interrupção da cadeia de transmissão da TB em tempo oportuno.

The aim of this study is to evaluate the investigation actions of home contacts of tuberculosis (TB) index cases in the Tuberculosis Control Program (TCP) of Pelotas/RS - Brazil. This cross-sectional descriptive study was based on data from the records of index cases. The sample consisted of 163 contacts of 68 subjects with pulmonary TB in treatment in the TCP between June and August, 2009. These contacts were predominantly female, over 10 years of age and the daughters of index cases. The requested examination was a chest radiography and bacilloscopy. Active TB was found in 1.8 % of contacts. Results show that assistance for TB patients in Pelotas-Brazil, which is centralized in a single specialized service, hinders the investigation of home contacts. Primary care is required to narrow the gap between professionals and the family, and facilitate early diagnosis and interruption of the TB transmission chain in a timely manner.

El objetivo fue evaluar las acciones de investigación de los contactos intradomiciliaros de casos índices de tuberculosis (TB), en el Programa de Control de Tuberculosis (PCT) de Pelotas/RS - Brasil. Se trata de un estudio descriptivo de corte transversal, con datos del prontuario de los casos índices. La muestra fue constituida por 163 contactos de 68 sujetos con TB pulmonar en tratamiento en el PCT, entre julio y agosto de 2009. Los contactos eran predominantemente del sexo femenino, con edad superior a los 10 años e hijos del caso índice. Los exámenes solicitados fueron Rayos X del tórax y baciloscopia. Se verificó la presencia de la enfermedad activa en un 1,8% de los contactos. Los resultados evidencian que la atención a TB en Pelotas-Brasil, centralizada en un único servicio especializado, dificulta la investigación de los contactos intradomiciliarios, necesitando abarcar la atención primaria, para aproximar a los profesionales de la familia y facilitar el diagnóstico precoz y la interrupción de la cadena de transmisión de la TB en tiempo oportuno.

Tendências da produção do conhecimento de enfermagem no controle de infecção em oncologia / Tendencias de la producción de conocimiento de enfermería en el control de la infección en oncología / Trends of production of knowledge of nursing in the control of infection in oncology

Os clientes com câncer apresentam complicações significativas de morbi-mortalidade relacionadas à infecção. Esta revisão integrativa tem como objetivo analisar a produção científica da enfermagem acerca do controle de infecções nos clientes com câncer. A busca dos 37 artigos incluídos foi por meio eletrônico em bases de dados, no período de 2002 a 2009. Os dados foram analisados na perspectiva da Metodologia de Categorização Epistemológica para a Pesquisa na Enfermagem. Os resultados indicam que a produção é internacional, mais setorizada na área da oncologia clínica, com ênfase nos clientes como sujeitos das investigações, tendência exógena da origem da infecção e prevalência de artigos de revisão de literatura. Conclui-se que a produção do conhecimento no controle de infecção é prioridade no cenário nacional, as ações devem ser baseadas numa visão sistêmica, considerando a complexidade que envolve os profissionais na prestação do cuidado de enfermagem.

Los clientes con cáncer tienen complicaciones importantes de morbilidad y mortalidad relacionadas con la infección. Esta revisión integradora es analizar la producción científica de los enfermeros sobre el control de infecciones en los clientes con el cáncer. La búsqueda de los 37 artículos se insertó a través de bases de datos electrónico, en el período 2002 a 2009. Los datos fueron analizados desde la perspectiva de la metodología epistemológica para la Investigación en Enfermería. Los resultados indican que la producción es internacional, el área más sectorizado de la oncología clínica, la tendencia fuente exógena de infección y prevalecía de la literatura revisada. Se concluye que la producción de conocimiento en el control de la infección es una prioridad en la escena nacional, las acciones deben basarse en una visión sistémica, teniendo en cuenta la complejidad que implica en el cuidado profesional de enfermería.

Customers with cancer have significant complications of morbidity and mortality related to infection. This integrative review is to analyze the scientific production of nurses about infection control in clients with cancer. The search of the 37 articles included was through electronic databases, from 2002 to 2009. Data were analyzed from the perspective of epistemological categorization methodology for Research in Nursing. The results indicate that production is international, more sectorized area of clinical oncology, with emphasis on customers as subjects of investigations, trend exogenous source of infection and prevalence of reviewed literature. It is concluded that the production of knowledge in infection control is a priority on the national scene, the actions must be based on a systemic view, considering the complexity involved in providing professional nursing care.

Epidemiology and surveillance of methicillin-resistant staphylococcus aureus in Latin America

Surveillance systems monitoring the spread and divergence of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) strains are critical if preventive and therapeutic measures targeting MRSA infection are to be employed optimally. Surveillance provides information on the spread of MRSA, on the emergence of new strains within hospitals and communities, on the antibiotic resistance profile and virulence of strains, and on the risk factors associated with infection. These data help clinicians to provide appropriate empiric treatment of infections circulating in their region, leading to improved patient outcomes. While information on MRSA epidemiology in Latin America is growing, significant gaps exist in the available data, especially in local areas where fewer resources are available for characterizing and reporting MRSA strains. Here, we describe current knowledge of healthcare- and community-associated MRSA epidemiology in the region, and provide recommendations for future development of surveillance systems with a view to providing robust data at regional, national and local levels.

Prevention strategies for methicillin-resistant S taphylococcus aureus (MRSA) in Latin America

After the first reports of the emergence of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) in the 1970s, numerous measures intended to prevent its transmission were initiated in hospitals. However, in most cases, large-scale measures failed to be implemented and the transmission of MRSA has since led to a global pandemic. Presently, doubts still remain about the best approach to prevent and control MRSA and more often than not, control measures are not implemented. Therefore, we review here the current situation in Latin America with respect to existing policies for control of MRSA, and evaluate the evidence for control measures in hospitals and the community. We look at the risk factors for infection and transmission of MRSA between hospital patients and within specific populations in the community, and at the effect of antibiotic usage on the spread of MRSA in these settings. Finally, we summarize recommendations for the prevention and control of MRSA, which can be applied to the Latin American hospital environment and community setting.

Surveillance programs for detection and characterization of emergent pathogens and antimicrobial resistance: results from the Division of Infectious Diseases, UNIFESP

Several epidemiological changes have occurred in the pattern of nosocomial and community acquired infectious diseases during the past 25 years. Social and demographic changes possibly related to this phenomenon include a rapid population growth, the increase in urban migration and movement across international borders by tourists and immigrants, alterations in the habitats of animals and arthropods that transmit disease, as well as the raise of patients with impaired host defense abilities. Continuous surveillance programs of emergent pathogens and antimicrobial resistance are warranted for detecting in real time new pathogens, as well as to characterize molecular mechanisms of resistance. In order to become more effective, surveillance programs of emergent pathogens should be organized as a multicenter laboratory network connected to the main public and private infection control centers. Microbiological data should be integrated to guide therapy, adapting therapy to local ecology and resistance patterns. This paper presents an overview of data generated by the Division of Infectious Diseases, Federal University of São Paulo, along with its participation in different surveillance programs of nosocomial and community acquired infectious diseases.

Várias alterações epidemiológicas ocorreram no perfil das doenças infecciosas hospitalares e comunitárias nos últimos 25 anos. Mudanças sociais e demográficas possivelmente relacionadas com esse fenômeno incluem o rápido crescimento populacional, o aumento da migração urbana e deslocamento através de fronteiras internacionais por turistas e imigrantes, alterações nos habitats de animais e artrópodes que transmitem doença assim como o aumento no número de pacientes com deficiências nas respostas de defesa. Os programas contínuos de vigilância de patógenos emergentes e resistência antimicrobiana são necessários para a detecção em tempo real de novos patógenos assim como para caracterizar mecanismos moleculares de resistência. Para serem mais efetivos, os programasde vigilância dos patógenos emergentes devem ser organizados em uma rede de laboratórios multicêntricos ligados aos principais centros de controle de infecções, públicos e privados. Os dados microbiológicos devem ser integrados a guias terapêuticos adaptando práticas terapêuticas à ecologia local eaos padrões de resistência. O artigo apresenta uma revisão dos dados gerados pela Disciplina de Infectologia, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, contemplando sua participação nos diferentes programas de vigilância de doenças infecciosas hospitalares e adquiridas na comunidade.

Diretrizes brasileiras para pneumonia adquirida na comunidade em adultos imunocompetentes - 2009 / Brazilian guidelines for community-acquired pneumonia in immunocompetent adults - 2009

A pneumonia adquirida na comunidade mantém-se como a doença infecciosa aguda de maior impacto médico-social quanto à morbidade e a custos relacionados ao tratamento. Os grupos etários mais suscetíveis de complicações graves situam-se entre os extremos de idade, fato que tem justificado a adoção de medidas de prevenção dirigidas a esses estratos populacionais. Apesar do avanço no conhecimento no campo da etiologia e da fisiopatologia, assim como no aperfeiçoamento dos métodos propedêuticos e terapêuticos, inúmeros pontos merecem ainda investigação adicional. Isto se deve à diversidade clínica, social, demográfica e estrutural, que são tópicos que não podem ser previstos em sua totalidade. Dessa forma, a publicação de diretrizes visa agrupar de maneira sistematizada o conhecimento atualizado e propor sua aplicação racional na prática médica. Não se trata, portanto, de uma regra rígida a ser seguida, mas, antes, de uma ferramenta para ser utilizada de forma crítica, tendo em vista a variabilidade da resposta biológica e do ser humano, no seu contexto individual e social. Esta diretriz constitui o resultado de uma discussão ampla entre os membros do Conselho Científico e da Comissão de Infecções Respiratórias da Sociedade Brasileira de Pneumologia e Tisiologia. O grupo de trabalho propôs-se a apresentar tópicos considerados relevantes, visando a uma atualização da diretriz anterior. Evitou-se, tanto quanto possível, uma repetição dos conceitos considerados consensuais. O objetivo principal do documento é a apresentação organizada dos avanços proporcionados pela literatura recente e, desta forma, contribuir para a melhora da assistência ao paciente adulto imunocompetente portador de pneumonia adquirida na comunidade.

Community-acquired pneumonia continues to be the acute infectious disease that has the greatest medical and social impact regarding morbidity and treatment costs. Children and the elderly are more susceptible to severe complications, thereby justifying the fact that the prevention measures adopted have focused on these age brackets. Despite the advances in the knowledge of etiology and physiopathology, as well as the improvement in preliminary clinical and therapeutic methods, various questions merit further investigation. This is due to the clinical, social, demographical and structural diversity, which cannot be fully predicted. Consequently, guidelines are published in order to compile the most recent knowledge in a systematic way and to promote the rational use of that knowledge in medical practice. Therefore, guidelines are not a rigid set of rules that must be followed, but first and foremost a tool to be used in a critical way, bearing in mind the variability of biological and human responses within their individual and social contexts. This document represents the conclusion of a detailed discussion among the members of the Scientific Board and Respiratory Infection Committee of the Brazilian Thoracic Association. The objective of the work group was to present relevant topics in order to update the previous guidelines. We attempted to avoid the repetition of consensual concepts. The principal objective of creating this document was to present a compilation of the recent advances published in the literature and, consequently, to contribute to improving the quality of the medical care provided to immunocompetent adult patients with community-acquired pneumonia.

Cumplimiento con las guías nacionales en pacientes hospitalizados con neumonía adquirida en la comunidad: Resultados del estudio capo en Argentina / Adherence with National Guidelines in hospitalized patients with community-acquired pneumonia: Results of CAPO study in Argentina

Un comité de seis sociedades científicas en Argentina desarrolló guías para la atención de pacientes con neumonía adquirida en la comunidad (NAC). El objetivo de este estudio fue evaluar el nivel de cumplimiento con el cuidado recomendado en las guías nacionales en pacientes hospitalizados con NAC en Argentina. Usando indicadores de calidad, la atención de 436 pacientes hospitalizados en 12 centros de Argentina fue evaluada en las áreas de hospitalización, oxigenoterapia, terapia antibiótica empírica, terapia switch, alta hospitalaria y prevención. El nivel de cumplimiento fue clasificado como óptimo (>90%), intermedio (60% a 90%), y bajo (<60%). La selección de antibióticos empíricos y la administración dentro de las primeras ocho horas de admisión tuvieron una adherencia superior al 80%. Se identificó un nivel de cumplimiento bajo en las áreas del pasaje de antibióticos de la vía endovenosa a la vía oral (53%), la prevención con vacunación antineumocóccica (51%) y el ofrecimiento para dejar de fumar (29%). Usando indicadores de calidad se pueden identificar áreas específicas de atención en pacientes con NAC con un bajo nivel de cumplimiento con las guías nacionales. En Argentina se deben desarrollar inicialmente intervenciones enfocadas a mejorar el manejo del pasaje de antibióticos de la vía endovenosa a la vía oral y prevención de la NAC.

A committee of six scientific organizations from Argentina developed guidelines for the management of patients with community-acquired pneumonia (CAP).The objective of this study was to evaluate the level of adherence with the recommended care suggested by the guidelines in patients hospitalized with CAP in Argentina. Using quality indicators the management of 436 patients who were hospitalized in 12 Argentinean institutions was evaluated. The care given among the following areas was reviewed: need for hospitalization, need for oxygen therapy, empiric antibiotic therapy, switch therapy, hospital discharge, and prevention. The level of adherence was classified as optimal (>90%), intermediate (60% to 90%), and low (<60%).The selection of the empiric antibiotic therapy and the administration of antibiotics between the first 8 hours after arrival had an adherence greater to 80%. A low level of adherence was found in the areas of switch therapy (53%), prevention of CAP with pneumococcal vaccine (51%) and smoking cessation offered (29%). Using quality indicators it is possible to identify specific areas of management in patients with CAP to a low level of adherence with national guidelines. In Argentina interventions to improve switch therapy and prevention of CAP should be developed.

Prevención de la neumonía adquirida en la comunidad / Prevention o commmunity-acquired pneumonia in adutts

Polysaccharide 23 valent pneumococcal vaccine commercially available from 1983 includes 23 serotypes of Streptococcus pneumoniae, representing near 90% of strains involved in invasive pneumococcal disease in immune competent adults. Vaccine confers protection against invasive pneumococcal disease. Immunization is recommended in adults over 65 years old, in patients affected by chronic diseases (cardiopathies, COPD, nephropathies, diabetes mellitus, hepatic cirrhosis, chronic breakage in brain-blood barrier, functional or anatomical asplenia, alcoholism), in immunocompromised hosts, including HIV infection, chemotherapy treatment and hematological malignancies. Influenza vaccine is prepared with particulated antigens, including two influenza A strains and one influenza B strain, selected according to influenza epidemiological worldwide surveillance the year before. On account of continuous antigenic changes (drifts), it is necessary to modify the vaccine antigen's composition yearly. Cost/effectiveness evaluation has confirmed the efficacy of influenza vaccine in reducing morbidity and mortality associated to influenza epidemic and health economical resources involved in patient care. Besides, clinical trials have confirmed that immunization reduces the risk of acquiring pneumonia, of hospitalization and death in elderly people during the influenza epidemic, when vaccine antigenic composition is similar to the circulating strains. Vaccination is recommended annually in healthy adults over 65 years old, in patients with chronic diseases (cardiopathies, COPD, nephropathies, diabetes mellitus, hepatic cirrhosis, chronic breakage of blood-brain barrier, functional or anatomical asplenia, alcoholism). It is also recommended in women who will be in the second or third trimester of pregnancy during the influenza season, in immunocompromised hosts, in institutionalized patients (geriatrics), health care workers, and travelers to geographical areas ...

La vacuna anti neumocóccica polivalente disponible desde 1983 incluye 23 serotipos de Streptococcus pneumoniae, que representan cerca de 90% de las cepas que ocasionan enfermedad neumocóccica invasora en adultos inmunocompetentes. La vacuna confiere protección contra la enfermedad neumocóccica invasora. Se recomienda vacunar a los adultos sanos sobre 65 años de edad, portadores de enfermedades crónicas (cardiopatías, EPOC, nefropatías, diabetes mellitus, cirrosis hepática, pérdida crónica de LCR, asplenia funcional o anatómica, alcoholismo), inmunocomprometidos incluyendo los infectados por VIH, quimioterapia y neoplasias hematológicas. La vacuna anti influenza se prepara con antígenos particulados, e incluye dos tipos antigénicos de virus influenza A y una de influenza B, seleccionados de acuerdo al perfil epidemiológico que arroja la vigilancia mundial de influenza en el año anterior. Debido al cambio antigénico que se produce cada año, es necesario modificar la composición de la vacuna. Los estudios de costo-efectividad han confirmado la eficacia de la vacuna anti influenza en reducir la morbimortalidad asociada a la epidemia de influenza y los gastos de salud involucrados en el manejo de los enfermos. Además, los estudios clínicos han confirmado que la vacunación reduce el riesgo de neumonía, hospitalización y muerte en la población senescente durante la epidemia de influenza, cuando la cepa de la vacuna es similar a la presente en la comunidad. Se recomienda vacunar anualmente a los adultos sanos sobre 65 años de edad, portadores de enfermedades crónicas (cardiopatías, EPOC, nefropatías, diabetes mellitus, cirrosis hepática, pérdida crónica de LCR, asplenia funcional o anatómica, alcoholismo), mujeres embarazadas con más de 3 meses de gestación, inmunocomprometidos, pacientes institucionalizados (geriátricos, residentes en casas de reposo), trabajadores de la salud, viajeros a áreas geográficas de epidemia.

Prevención de la neumonía del adulto adquirida en la comunidad / Prevention of community-acquired pneumonia in adults

Polysaccharide 23 valent pneumococcal vaccine commercially available from 1983 includes 23 serotypes of Streptococcus pneumoniae, representing near 90% of strains involved in invasive pneumococcal disease in immune competent adults. Vaccine confers protection against invasive pneumococcal disease. Immunization is recommended in adults over 65 years old, in patients affected by chronic diseases (cardiopathies, COPD, nephropathies, diabetes mellitus, hepatic cirrhosis, chronic breakage in brain-blood barrier, functional or anatomical asplenia, alcoholism), in immunocompromised hosts, including HIV infection, chemotherapy treatment and hematological malignancies. Influenza vaccine is prepared with particulated antigens, including two influenza A strains and one influenza B strain, selected according to influenza epidemiological worldwide surveillance the year before. On account of continuous antigenic changes (drifts), it is necessary to modify the vaccine antigen's composition yearly. Cost/effectiveness evaluation has confirmed the efficacy of influenza vaccine in reducing morbidity and mortality associated to influenza epidemic and health economical resources involved in patient care. Besides, clinical trials have confirmed that immunization reduces the risk of acquiring pneumonia, of hospitalization and death in elderly people during the influenza epidemic, when vaccine antigenic composition is similar to the circulating strains. Vaccination is recommended annually in healthy adults over 65 years old, in patients with chronic diseases (cardiopathies, COPD, nephropathies, diabetes mellitus, hepatic cirrhosis, chronic breakage of blood-brain barrier, functional or anatomical asplenia, alcoholism). It is also recommended in women who will be in the second or third trimester of pregnancy during the influenza season, in immunocompromised hosts, in institutionalized patients (geriatrics)...

La vacuna anti neumocóccica polivalente disponible desde 1983 incluye 23 serotipos de Streptococcus pneumoniae, que representan cerca de 90% de las cepas que ocasionan enfermedad neumocóccica invasora en adultos inmunocom-petentes. La vacuna confiere protección contra la enfermedad neumocóccica invasora. Se recomienda vacunar a los adultos sanos sobre 65 años de edad, portadores de enfermedades crónicas (cardiopatías, EPOC, nefropatías, diabetes mellitus, cirrosis hepática, pérdida crónica de LCR, asplenia funcional o anatómica, alcoholismo), inmunocom-prometidos incluyendo los infectados por VIH, quimioterapia y neoplasias hematológicas. La vacuna anti influenza se prepara con antígenos particulados, e incluye dos tipos antigénicos de virus influenza A y una de influenza B, seleccionados de acuerdo al perfil epidemiológico que arroja la vigilancia mundial de influenza en el año anterior. Debido al cambio antigénico que se produce cada año, es necesario modificar la composición de la vacuna. Los estudios de costo-efectividad han confirmado la eficacia de la vacuna anti influenza en reducir la morbimortalidad asociada a la epidemia de influenza y los gastos de salud involucrados en el manejo de los enfermos. Además, los estudios clínicos han confirmado que la vacunación reduce el riesgo de neumonía, hospitalización y muerte en la población senescente durante la epidemia de influenza, cuando la cepa de la vacuna es similar a la presente en la comunidad. Se recomienda vacunar anualmente a los adultos sanos sobre 65 años de edad, portadores de enfermedades crónicas (cardiopatías, EPOC, nefropatías, diabetes mellitus, cirrosis hepática, pérdida crónica de LCR, asplenia funcional o anatómica, alcoholismo), mujeres embarazadas con más de 3 meses de gestación al momento de aparecer la epidemia, inmunocomprometidos, pacientes institucionalizados (geriátricos, residentes en casas de reposo), trabajadores de la salud, viajeros a áreas geográficas de epidemia

Prevención y tratamiento de la neumonía adquirida en la comunidad en pacientes adultos: Un enfoque para la atención primaria / Prevention and treatment of communiy acquired pneumonia in adult patients in primary care

Community-acquired pneumonia is a frequent cause of morbidity, hospitalization and death especially among patients with risk factors. Several agents can provoke this condition and their relevance change according to specific epidemiological exposures, time of the year and comorbidity, being Streptococcus pneumoniae the most frequent etiological agent followed by Mycoplasma pneumoniae, Chlamydia pneumoniae, respiratory viruses and Haemophilus influenzae. Management requires proper identification of the most vulnerable patients and prompt admittance and X-ray confirmation to analyze extension, complications or differential diagnosis. Etiological studies are limited by the low sensitivity and specificity of the sputum Gram stain, the invasive nature of some techniques or the high cost of a comprehensive study. Nonetheless, etiological studies are relevant on severe cases, immunosuppressed patients or those without response to an empirical treatment. New diagnostic tests include serological studies for atypical pathogens, direct detection of viral agents or pneumococcal antigens on sputum samples and Legionella pneumophila serotype 1 antigen detection in urine. Penicillin resistant pneumococcal (PRP) isolates associated to pneumonia or bacteremia as well as isolates with resistance to third generation cefalasporins or macrolides are still infrequently observed among adult patients in Chile. Notwithstanding, worldwide experience indicates that patients affected by PRP isolates and treated with penicillin do not evolve with a higher risk for treatment failure, except for those cases where the MIC for penicillin is equal or higher than 4 µg/mL.

Etiology od childhood community acquired pneumonia and its implications for vaccination

Pneumonia is an important cause of morbidity and mortality among children throughout the world. Vaccines are available for some organisms, but they are underutilized and/or still development. To evaluate the potential impact of vaccines, we review studies in which the etiology of childhood community-acquired pneuminia was recorded. In North America and Europe (9 studies), the etiology of pneumonia was established in 62 percent of studied children (range 43 percent-88 percent) by use of noninvasive specific methods for microbiologic diagnosis. The most often identified agents were S.pneumoniae (22 percent), respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) (20 percent), Haemophilus influenzae (7 percent), and Mycoplasma pneumoniae (15 percent). In Africa and South America (8 studies), bacteria were recovered from 56 percent (range 32 percent-68 percent) of severely ill children studied by lung aspirate. The most often isolated bacteria were Streptococcus pneumoniae (33 percent) and Hemophilus influenzae (21 percent). A high percentage of H.influenzae strains were not serotype b. Throughout the world, children requiring hospitalization were most likely to have infection caused by pneumococcus H.influenzae or RSV. Out patient also had Mycoplasma pneumoniae. Countries in Africa and Asia recorded 2 to times more children with pneumonia (7 to 40/100 annually) than in the USA. Widespread use of pneumococcal and H.influenzae type b conjugate vaccines could reduce the frequency of children pneumoniae by one-third. Further reduction will require development of non-type b H.influenzae, RSV and M.pneumoniae vaccines. This could result in a > 50 percent reduction of pneumonia in children. This goal should be sought achieved as soon as possible.